SALAMANDRA SALAMANDRA (LINNAEUS, 1758)
SPOTTED SALAMANDER

Order Caudate Amphibious - Caudata Scopoli, 1777 or Urodela Latreille, 1825

Family Salamandrids or True Salamanders - Salamandridae Goldfuss, 1820

The family consists of 15 genera comprising 62 species.

Salamander Genus - Salamandra Laurenti, 1768

The genus comprises 7 species, 4 of which are represented in the fauna of Europe. On the territory of Ukraine, S. salamandra (Linnaeus, 1758) is found. The species is polytypical. Within Ukraine only its nominative subspecies is present - Salamandra s. salamandra (Linnaeus, 1758).

They are the largest caudate amphibians in Ukraine, the total length of adult animals reaches 150-250 mm. Amphibians of this species have a massive head and body and a tail rounded in the crosssection. The eyes are large with prominent and oblong poisonous glands - parotids - located behind them. The fore limbs have 4 digits and the back ones 5 digits, swimming membranes are not developed.

The body is segmented into 10-12 depressions with so-called costal (rib) furrows transferring to the front part of the tail. Palatine teeth look like two S-shaped rows. The body coloration on top and partially on the sides is intensive black with bright yellow or yellow and orange spots which are often very inconsistent in terms of their shape and size. The belly is tinted black or black and brown. Males are different from females because of a more prominent cloaca.

Status. II Category of the Red Book of Ukraine - "endangered species"; the species is also listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention ("animal species under protection").

Biotopes In their range they are tied to damp forest biotopes where they can be found in river valleys and on mountain slopes; they were also found beyond the forest zone (on polonynas).

Number and Tendencies to Change. Their number reaches 3-5 ones per 100 m of the route; the density in the Carpathians biospheric reservation is 12-80 ones per ha. The research of the past years gives reason to speak if not of stabilization of the number of this species then in any case of slowing down of its decrease. Thus, the records of this species in August 2003 in the midstream of the river of Latoritsa in Svalyava rayon, Transcarpathia Oblast, show the number of this species of up to 5 ones per 100 m of the route. In early April 2004, in the vicinity of the city of Uzhgorod, the number of these animals amounted to 12 ones per 100 m of the route and in late April of the same year in the vicinity of the village of Yaremcha, Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast - up to 7 ones per 100 m of the route.

Biological characteristics. Appearance after winter hibernation varies depending on each year’s weather conditions and depends on the height of the place yet usually it happens in March. The same factors precondition the onset of the animals’ hibernation yet most often it happens in October-November. They use holes under tree roots, closed-up depressions in the soil, etc. as winter shelters. Mating begins in April and can continue during all spring and summer. Usually, during mating the male lays spermatophore on the ground and the female picks it up with the edges of its cloaca. Pregnancy and delivery take place within one year or this term continues for a while into the next year as well, which averages 10 months in total. There is also evidence available that up to 3 years spermatozoids can remain active in the female’s sperm theca.
Types of reproduction of this species in various populations can vary. Thus, in some cases females can lay 25-30 eggs with larvae appearing practically immediately. In other cases, eggs produce metamorphosed species since they have no gills and are colored like adult species. There are also cases known when active larvae hibernated. Besides, there are also differences in terms of reproduction of animals living on different heights. Species from mountainous populations reproduce once every two years. Development of larvae usually happens in small, clean and slow forest streams. Reproductive maturity begins when they are 3-4 years old.